Library System Essay

Library System is an enterprise resource planning system for a library, used to track items owned, orders made, bills paid, and patrons who have borrowed. Prior to computerization, library tasks were performed manually and independently from one another. Selectors ordered materials with ordering slips, cataloguers manually catalogued items and indexed them with the card catalog system, fines were collected by local bailiffs, and users signed books out manually, indicating their name on cue cards which were then kept at the circulation desk. Early mechanization came in 1936, when the University of Texas began using a punch card system to manage library circulation. While the punch card system allowed for more efficient tracking of loans, library services were far from being integrated, and no other library task was affected by this change. Following this, the next big innovation came with the advent of MARC standards in the 1960s which coincided with the growth of computer technologies – library automation was born. Now, in our society all over the world technology is the most important advancement, a necessity in bringing about progress as we move along in this computerized world. These changes in effect make man’s life easier and more convenient. The relationship between the library and computer is constantly changing that the use of computer contributes to the way man learns and communicates. It easy in this world to strive for changes and since library is no different from any firm and institution, considering the use of computer to perform a given task will be efficient. Librarians have the responsibility not only to know about the ways in which libraries will be managed using techniques of computerized, but also to be aware of the changes that computerized can bring to the library services in the ne ar future.(Grace, 2011) And as of today our Library System in PUP-Ragay is still operated manually. Manual operating systems are vulnerable to human error. For instance, a librarian who misfiles a borrower’s records or indexes a book incorrectly slows down the process and wastes employees’ time, it’s also slow to operate. Instead of using a computer to issue and take back books, locating and updating a card index is slow and laborious. Manual systems are unable to store large amounts of data efficiently. With manual systems staffs spend a lot of their time on mechanical, clerical  tasks rather than liaising with library visitors. Manual systems in libraries struggle to cope with the recent explosion in information requests, many of them about online resources. Manual systems find it hard to cope with the volume of borrowers’ inquiries about books and research information. On a simple level, locating a precise book within the local library system is time-consuming without a link ed computer network. On another level, meeting an inquiry about a precise online resource becomes almost impossible. According to Robson (2001), usability is a key requirement for users, says Elisabeth Robson, Product manager for Online Computer Library Center. The catalogue has become a way to pull together disparate resources, including commercial resources and web links. management systems also allow circulation, including check in/check out and enable libraries to purchase materials and track where they are. In the 1980s, to relieve overcrowding in existing on-campus library buildings, the UC system constructed two regional library facilities: the Northern Regional Library Facility at UC Berkeley’s Richmond Field Station (opened 1982), and the Southern Regional Library Facility on the western edge of the UCLA campus (opened 1987). As of 2007, Northern Regional Library Facility is home to 4.7 million volumes, while SRLF is home to 5.7 million. Each facility receives items from all UC campuses in its respective region of the state, and has climate controls and high-density stacks. Items are shelved two deep and are arranged in a sequence that results in efficient use of space (but is not quite as intuitive as traditional library indexing systems). As a result, casual browsing is prohibited, and the shelves are accessible only by library clerks trained to retrieve and put back items properly. Users must page materials to an on-site reading room or to a library at their home campus. Today, Information Technology (IT) has changed the world massively. (examples include reading our emails and news online using neither paper nor pen, communicating with instant messengers and Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) while not sending letters or going to call centers, watching video or TV shows online without renting / buying of physical DVDs, ordering and purchasing products online from around the world without traveling, and as one of the more recent developments, some minor surgical procedures can be performed without the presence of doctors). And even all the businesses are shifting to computer based system. All of this motivated us to play our  own part in supporting the PUP-Ragay Library in our effort to improve efficiency and quality of the services and reduce the sort of problems and difficulties which accompany the old system. This project is concerned with developing a System using Advance Programming. This System will provide a computer based library system with higher speed, accuracy and efficiency. It should be mentioned that such a system would be replicable and could be easily implemented in other school libraries and public libraries, once it has been successfully installed in PUP-Ragay. Statement of the Problem The problems with the current library system of PUP-Ragay Library are the following: The current system is too complicated as said by the user.  The current system is too slow for processes Scope and Limitation of the Study Scope: The scope of this project is to make a library system that will meet the general and specific objectives and are the following: (a) The proposed system will be used in borrowing, returning and recording of books of PUP-Ragay Library. (b) The proposed system will be having a single application that includes circulation, cataloging and inventory. (c) The proposed system can print the books recorded in the inventory. (d) The proposed system will be having a single username and password. (e) The proposed system may also be used to manage the inventory of PUP-Ragay Library. (f) The proposed system will be displaying a record of past and present borrowers that may be used for future references. (g) The proposed system can create multiple user accounts. (h) The proposed system will be using Visual Basic 6 programming language in making the proposal system. Limitation: The proposed system will be limited to the following: (a) The proposed system will not be using barcode scanner. (b) The proposed system will not be displaying any late returned books with  penalties but will still display a message that the book was returned. (c) The proposed system will not be generating accession number for the books. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Theoretically, the main purpose of the proposed system is to create an efficient fast and reliable Library System of PUP-Ragay Campus. Conceptual framework paradigm will present to you like input, process and output of the system that will show the great difference between existing system to the proposed system.

A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings by Gabriel Marquez

Gabriel Marquez is famed with producing a large collection of fine literature. A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings guides readers into the depths of deep moral and spiritual truths—all done through the vision of a children’s tale; yet, it’s far from a simple short story for elementary students to digest. It’s Gabriel Marquez’s method and style that reaches out to the cultured individual as we look at point of view, character construction, and symbolism. Marquez, in fact, is very deliberate in his tone and thematic language which creates the power behind his tale. I will assess this short fiction piece and offer critical evidence to aid in dissecting how and what is the author’s true message: He blended magical realism with satirical undercurrents against the Columbian government. Marquez complicated his meaning by incorporating religion with government upheaval into Columbia, a country based in Catholicism. This steadfast government preferred to control its people instead of creating unity. The characters, too, hide their motive as Gabriel Marquez provides vivid descriptions of why the human mind has become so tainted by its own grip on material vices and following a strict higher order. Materialism and the Columbian government have put up walls, according to Marquez, between the spiritual world and the individual. In fact, an entire village in A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings is so blinded of the true essence of human spirit that they cannot tap into it—even when a village cages an angel in town. Yet, could this1968 publication, an early creation by Marquez instead be a satirical stab at an artist who hopes to fool a small village of simple-minded folks? This idea generates great conflict as readers attempt unravel this complicated piece. Marquez’s story stirred up religion, the Latin American government, and social disharmony. Symbolism surrounding the ideal of his vision of the Latin American government was a tricky undertaking for Marquez. The main reason that this was a risk for Marquez is that if someone were to chastise or publicly mock the Columbian government, the repercussions most often led to the arrest of an individual. The government didn’t allow free-press or speaking out against the government. Since Columbia, by-and-large, is a catholic country Marquez’s angel can be viewed as a symbol of the constant praying done by their lower-class society. They prayed for their freedom, safety, and peaceful survival. It’s very ironic how a poor community is forced to save every peso they work so hard to earn. The limited funds netted by individuals and households winds up being just enough for survival. The government, in turn, looks the other way as it pilfers every peso they can from individuals and families. It’s almost a dictatorial monarchy that could be likened to the story of Robin Hood and the problems he faced when trying to share the wealth with the less fortunate. In Marquez’s story, he showed readers that the people of this simple Columbian village prayed often and deeply to God, praying for an angel to save them from this constant torment. Many times, their prayers were focused solely on having a just government to represent them. They, however, never new what a just, fair legal system was. This small Columbian village and its political practices remained hidden from many neighboring countries. In dissecting this short story, I must look further into symbolism. Marquez also painted a picture of the poor woman in the story. The poor woman is actually the symbol of the poor Columbian people. The poor people prayed; yet, nothing seemed to be going their way—whether they held rosary beads or not. Marquez, in his compassionate, writerly ways used his poetic license when he brought an angel to this community that was in dire need of reconciliation. The angel, however, does not fit the stereotypical white-winged halo of beauty, grace, and heavenly wisdom. Here, the angel arrives on the scene in its crumpled state of near-paralysis. Even the angel’s wings are covered in stench. This stench on these heavy, infected wings is symbolic of a suffering community. Marquez wrote the following to initiate this winged-angel into the story, which created a tone of what was to come from our angel: his huge buzzard wings, dirty and half-plucked, were forever entangled in the mud. This description helps to create the theme of a troubled Latin American society. Every time a new election brings about a different government official or president, there seemed to be a need for spiritual aid for the Columbian nation. They always feel back on spiritual healing, but the healing never came to them. So, to display this, Marquez created the new government official, or president, as an angel coming to save Columbia in hopes of solving their massive problems. It so fitting, and ironic, that Marquez depicts the president as an angel. The president and government were anything but angelic toward its people. So to bring the message home, Marquez described a withered up, decrepit angel that is caged by the community—partly because they didn’t know what to make of this bird-creature. Marquez added in the short story, a poor woman who since childhood had been counting her heartbeats and had run out of numbers; the Portuguese Man who couldn’t sleep because the noise of the stars disturbed him†¦and many others with less serious ailments. Marquez further conveys meaning by creating characters that seem to have something missing. The angel, although it is a fantastic sight with its huge wings, appears to be very human, even ordinary. At best, it’s a disappointed angel that was forced into a standstill by the seeing eye of the people who yearned for a better system of government. We sense upheaval and emotions from the characters, yet he does not create concrete characters that the reader can relate to. There is a purpose to his magic, though. Our angel is described as a helpless angel, one that is caged by the people. Even though he appears to be so weak and unable to even walk, they cage him. This, in effect, symbolizes how the government has instilled decades of fear into the people, blinding them and weakening them. They cannot speak for themselves for fear of being imprisoned by the government. More irony can be seen here because the people are fearful of being imprisoned by the government rule when they are already caged by this oppressive government. The character of our angel creates the style of the story. It is, both fascinating and distressing. Readers discover an underlying source of tension by how ill-mannered they treat this angel-like creation. In reality, we know that people don’t sprout wings. So this is either some kind of monster, a cruel trick, or completely imagined. When the doctor examines this caged winged-man, he feels that the wings are perfect for this creature. He is left to wonder—since he believes the wings are a perfect fit—why God did not grace us with wings as well. They are a natural addition to the old man’s frame. When we look at the logic of the situation, we either feel it has supernatural intentions or its wings were meant to fit him. The author even has Pelayo and Elisenda overcome their own shock and dismay when they, too, feel he is a familiar creature. As readers, we are steered in the same direction and simple acceptance of this winged angel. In fact, none of the people that come to view the winged-man ever question its existence. At the end, we are left to wonder whether he was or was not an actual angel. In any event, he is, at the very least, an old man with wings. The caged angel is placed on a families’ property. The family living on the property are representations of the cabinet of the government figure. Marquez created a poor family for the angel to land on. Once the angel arrives, the family accepts it and discovers a means of generating some income. They use the angel as if the angel were a sideshow freak at a carnival attraction. The people in the village, as displayed by Marquez’s talented ability to create plot, are tainted by conventional wisdom, superstition, and ignorance. This ignorance is something that has been instilled by a government that refused to allow its people to grow and expand their individual knowledge base. Even though the angel is treated distastefully—and the angel appears pensive and even in pain—it is in no way, a bad angel or a representation of the angel of death. He is just a vulnerable creation who is plagued by the heavy burden of his wings. Again, these dysfunctional, stench-ridden wings represent the cabinet of the government that has plagued the community into submission. The following phrase written by Marquez helps signify the fact that these villagers are a people easily swayed by the voice of confidence. First, out of all the people they might call on to help decipher who, what, and where this apparent winged creature came from, the villagers called upon a fortune teller of sorts. Marquez wrote, They called in a neighbor woman who knew everything about life and death to see him, and all she needed was one look to show them their mistake. Marquez, then, related how quickly this apparent all-knowing woman comes to a conclusion about this winged man without more than a bat of her eye at the winged individual. â€Å"He’s an angel,† she told them. â€Å"He must have been coming for the child, but the poor fellow is so old that the rain knocked him down. Here, Marquez uses clever wit to state this woman as either a gifted clairvoyant or another peasant who has found a crafty way to make some money by offering counsel to people in need of aid. In closing, it’s important to remember that several techniques aided in developing the old man’s existence. Marquez used detailed sensory imagery that were visual (his wings, fading hairline, and parasites) and ocular (we could smell this angel and feel his wings brush up against us as it pressed ag ainst the cage. Furthermore, Marquez does not depict the angel as some glorified dove or eagle with thick plumage. Instead, we are given the image of the withering, stench-filled feathers of a buzzard. This, in essence, is the picture we are to visualize when we think of the Columbian government and how it treated its people. Marquez purposely goes against the stereotypical angel and makes his point in poetic fashion. Marquez presents us with a new slant on angels: What if they were real and were nothing like we expected them to be? He develops stress and apprehension between this old man’s dying magical qualities with his equally unclean human characteristics. Thus, we cannot clearly place our character in one mental state. For one, he doesn’t appear omnipotent or heavenly. He does appear to be lost and in the wrong place, unable—or unwilling—to communicate with the people of Columbian. Once again, this symbolically drives home Marquez’s point: The Columbian people are living in a harsh reality of an unjust governing body. In the end, the old man is a stubborn, dying man of flightless wings who has lost his wings of life by sucking the life out of its people.

Changing In The Role Of Management Accountant Accounting Essay

Changing In The Role Of Management Accountant Accounting Essay Abstract This essay gives an overview of the changing role of management accountant and the management accounting practices. An idea of how these changes were developed and the factors behind the changes what were the reasons for implementing the changes, what were the main drivers and to what extent these changes are now being practice in the real business world? Introduction Over the few decades- many writers have pointed to the work of Johnson and Kaplan (1987) as an organ in this respect that there has been a shift in the expectation of management accountant. This essay is a brief overview of why, how, and to what extent there has been a change in the role of management accountant over the last three decades. In the past decades business environment has changed significantly, this is mainly because of the changes in technology and ever growing demands of business managers all around the globe. These changes have brought a significant level of change in economical factors of busi ness world and management accounting is no exception. And with these changes management accounting as a whole is effected, it has brought changes in accounting system and techniques and has been subject to various debates as to bring changes in the function of accounting. Nevertheless, there have been mainly two types of development: adoption of new tools and techniques which enhances accounting practice, and on the other hand change in the role of management accountant, which is towards acting more in decision making and advisory rather than solely focusing on providing information. In the following sections this essay will give a brief idea of the main reason behind the changes and how these changes effected the management accounting practices and to what extent these changes are adapted by the accounting sector. Reasons for the changes The ever changing environmental and technological factors has affected the global economy in past few decades, and accounting and finance is a key player in running any economy. And as being a major factor in running any economy accounting practices has suffered significantly. But the focus in this essay is on management accounting and its practitioner and why, how and to what extent there has been a change in their practice. Laboring under the shadow of financial reporting, auditing and taxation, on number of occasion’s management accounting has escaped the spotlight of critics. Often management accounting and the role of management accountant is relegated to the lower crust of accounting, and was limited to the role of organizational book keeping and budgeting and sometimes only to the extent of obligatory university or professional body courses. But if we look in this matter from historical point of view management accounting was and to some extent still considered as a dull profession. We can say that due to globalization of markets which have increased competition, and now markets are more volatile, where reaction time is very little for companies to act. Advancement in information and production technologies, which have reduce the time of information processing by accounting specialist and has enabled other organizational staff to take up tasks by themselves which were previously labeled for accountants.   [ i ]

Organic and Natural Food Restaurants Research Paper

Organic and Natural Food Restaurants - Research Paper Example The business will measure the profit margin and rate of stock turnover as a way of evaluating the growth (Carmona, 2004). An indicator that the firm intends to use is the percentage in profit margin, as well as the number of consumers that the restaurant will command. Industry Maturity Sustainability of cash flow into the firm will act as a gauge, which measures the maturity of the firm. The firm expects to reach its maturity after the period of three years because it is a startup business. Since the product cycle of the restaurant would influence its maturity in the market, it intends to have a short product cycle. Another important factor that the business intends to consider in order to reduce its maturity age is the choice of products that it would introduce to the market. The business has forecasted its growth in the first year to be modest. In the second year, the restaurant will increase its stocks in response to market behavior. In the third year, it would stabilize its stock . The business anticipates its growth to follow the trends indicated in the graph below. Sensitivity to Economic Cycles The business intends to demonstrate sensitivity to the state of economy by conducting a survey on consumer trend in similar businesses before it rolls out its product. The knowledge of consumer economic status is crucial to the pricing strategy of the business. The prices of the business product determine the number of clients that the business would serve. Due to the sensitivity of this issue, the business will monitor consumer trends before introducing expensive products. Consumer behavior depends on geographical location and sociological influences. Consumers usually demonstrate negative or positive response to price changes, which would eventually influence the rate of stock flow (Anderson, 2008). Most businesses, which command large market share, are sensitive to the consumer behavior. The operation of the business in the city would make it handle a wide range of customers who are likely to project different product demand patterns. Highly demanded products would be a measure of how sensitive the business is to the immediate environment. Seasonality Product seasonality is crucial to the business success because it would influence customer retention of the business. The business intends to operate in all seasons; however, it would control its product supply during low seasons. The business target consumers demonstrate seasonal trends in buying behavior. The high season appears immediately after the consumers get their salaries or wages and the low season occurs during mid month. This seasonal trend would influence the sales of the restaurant. The business intends to characterize the high season with high product supply and reduce the product supply during low season. The same trend would also influence its pricing strategy in order to create a constant profit margin at the end of each month. The business innovation would be sensitive to s easonality. Changes in economic trends in the market might force the business to blend its products in response to this trend (Anderson, 2008). Technological Change The restaurant will use the internet technology to reach its customers. The Internet use is an option that the business intends to use in order to update its clients with the frequent changes in products and prices. Order placement and instant payment are some of the common trends that the business

Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 17

Management - Essay Example When Perry Ellis acquired Munsingwear and the Penguin brand, it was presented with huge opportunity to exploit the brand in expanding its market as per the changing requirements of the customers. Foraying into new market requires adopting changes and promoting new ideas and values that can identify with the changing times. Thus, Perry Ellis who has acquired Penguin brand, needs to project new culture that that can meet the demands of the younger generation. The various stores and retail outlets that sell the new products with Penguin brand need to become more fashion conscious and state of the art technology to promote their products. Showcasing the history of the products would greatly promote the firms values and project their ideologies that are ready to embrace change. The corporate culture of new original Penguin clearly exhibits openness towards change that was lacking in the old brand. The various aspects of the interactive elements of the organization, which may comprise of diverse ideologies and personal conflicts of the individuals, work together to produce a cohesive output representing the organization’s unique culture. Organizational culture can be broadly defined through shared vision and collective goals of the organization. Hence, culture promotes flexibility of approach and initiative in decision making suit the changing requirements becomes vital part of organizational leadership. Therefore, organizational culture that is ready to adopt the changing values of the times, greatly facilitates brand to incorporate the changing requirements of the people while ensuring the credibility of the brand and quality of the product. Perry Ellis and Munsingwear primarily targeted the younger generation and diversified the product line to suit the changing demands of the demographic segment. They also used aggressive advertising to attract new market through intense media blitz, using celebrity

Modern Art Exhibition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Modern Art Exhibition - Essay Example The art form chosen is â€Å"Pencils† by Tom Friedman and it is a symbolic representation of the transformation of simple materials one use in daily life into an art form with immense creativity. Tom Friedman is well known for his outstanding creativity and he had chosen a material which is pencil to create a sculpture that promotes uniqueness and substance. This artist with the help of this art form is communicating to the world that nothing is too ordinary to be an art. The art is created with utmost patience and eye for detail.The art form chosen is â€Å"Moor† by Janine Antoni . Janine as a contemporary artist is famous for her utilization of ever day objects for reflecting her spontaneous creativity. The â€Å"Moor† is a rope spun together by Antoni with the help of materials collected from her family and friends. This art form is all about the connections which exist between the artist and people in her life at different stages of life. Every part of this a rt work is flooded with emotions and affection for her loved ones.The art form chosen is the â€Å"Milk Bottle Art† by Caroline Saul. This artist is an English designer who is passionate about recycled trash like plastic milk bottles. This art form is impeccable with bulbous vessel created out of an everyday object which is plastic milk bottle. This work represents the usability of every day object and their after -life. This work is fragile and delicate and the shades of orange, brown and blue adds to its creativity.

COMM ASSIGNMENT Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

COMM - Assignment Example Based on this fact, I have known Daniel for the last 5 years. It is important to provide an explanation that currently, my7 relationship with Daniel is at the intensifying stage. It is at this stage when people within a relationship are able to disclose more about each other, with the intention of finding out whether their actions will be reciprocated. It is important to denote that during this time, Daniel was able to disclose so much to me, and initially, I was reluctant to disclose any information about myself, and family to him. However, the breaking point came when Daniel was able to disclose the problems of his family to me. That is, his parents were facing a difficult time, and wanted to separate from each other. This clearly touched, because Daniel was able to trust me with such kind of sensitive information. Based on this action by Daniel, I started becoming free with him, disclosing some aspects about myself, as well as my family. However, most information that I normally d isclose to Daniel, revolves around my social and academic life. The same applies to Daniel, and this is because we came to an agreement that it won’t be necessary for both of us to disclose some sensitive information pertaining to our families. It is important to understand that the major factor that attracted me to Daniel was the confidence he had, on the first day that he was speaking to me. That is on the bus station. To me, confidence matters so much, and this is because it plays a great role in improving the communication ability of an individual. A person who is not confident will find it difficult to express himself; as a result, there will be a break-down in communication (Hardyman, 2010). However, two important issues contributed in making me, to be interested for a long time on Daniel. One factor is suspense. During the beginning of our relationship, it was always difficult to know what Daniel was thinking about. This is mainly because he was always quiet and

Roles of School Administrator Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Roles of School Administrator - Essay Example An administrator should prioritize through zeroing on the most integral activities for bringing all learners to high levels of achievement. This can be done by setting clear expectations, deciding on a planning system, and taking stock of the daily school operations in order to determine the most urgent and effective (Hopkins, 2000). Administrators should ensure they build a positive aspects of the teaching ability of the teachers. This is important because it helps them to know where teachers should improve. The objective should be to create a relationship with all faculty members through offering advice and ideas on the way to improve wherever refinement is needed. The staff should always be encouraged to find a better way and continue in their pursuit of quality education. It is vital that an administrator keeps proper record so that each time a faculty is conducted, it should be noted on the date and a brief summary of the observation. This helps in cases where a teacher has areas of inadequacy and refuses to make improvements in those areas (Hopkins,

Personal statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 4

Personal Statement Example Moreover, I have a willingness to develop my English speaking skills, which will certainly make my interaction with people overseas better. Ever since I was a young kid, I have always wanted to go abroad and roam around the world. Although I did my primary schooling from Turkey, I felt uneasy being in only one place and wanted to travel to different places and meet different kinds of people. Moving to the United Kingdom was a wonderful experience and it gave me great joy to meet people from a different culture. My experience throughout this time earned me many skills and I discovered a lot about my abilities. First of all, when I was on the basketball team at my school, I learnt to perform very well under pressure in order to get the best result. This happened especially during those times when there were only a few minutes left for the end of the game and we still had to score another point to win. Most importantly, I have learnt to accept my failures and be critical with myself by trying to find out the areas where I failed to perform well and perfecting those areas before the next game. I believe that such determination will make me a very good business manager, as carrying on with enthusiasm after losing a deal is a very important skill for business men to have. Another experience at my high school made me gain essential skills required by professionals in business management. ... Furthermore, I gained the ability to successfully work and get along with a diverse range of people. In addition, I learnt how to take quick decisions whenever an emergency related to the technical service or a fight between two individuals occurred. I believe that such skills are extremely important in the business profession because a business manager should know how to change the tone of his proposition depending on the mood of the client. Moreover, I believe that once you get along with a client, you are already halfway to scoring the deal. On the other hand, this experience taught me how important communication skills are in the profession of being an international business manager. Although I have developed extremely good interpersonal skills, I want to further develop my English speaking skills. I understand how important it is for an international business manager to be extremely fluent in English, especially during interactions with clients in different countries. This is th e reason why I have taken English as one of the subjects for the Business Foundation course which I am currently studying at CATS College. Other than English, I have taken Business Studies, Accounting and Math as all of these subjects are equally important for my future as an international business manager. Solving math problems has taught me perseverance which is a critical trait that will help me work towards my goals with a calm and clear head. Accounting has of course developed my practical skills, whereas Business Studies has increased my knowledge about the way things go about in the business profession. I highly believe that I am the perfect candidate for the International Business Trade/Management course offered by your university. I enjoy traveling to different places and

Assignment 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Assignment 3 - Essay Example For many barriers of communication to be avoided, members ought to hold mediated meetings in order to resolve their differences and map the way forward to success. If the group faces innumerable conflicts, the first resolution should be allowing everyone to participate fully in deliberation proceedings. Leaders ought to advise members to listen to each other’s point of view on the topic under discussion. Through this, every member feels appreciated, and they work harder, towards the success of the group. Secondly, members should appreciate, be respectful and aim at creating a healthy relationship with other group members, their opinions notwithstanding. When members set up such a mood, everyone feels appreciated and respected. This boosts the morale of every member, enhancing teamwork and self-esteem (Stern, 2003). Thus, everyone feels welcome to produce viewpoints in group deliberations and discussions. This behavior results into positive success in all the activities of the group. Finally, members should propose solutions to crises, in the course of operations of the group. This method, known as brainstorming, aims at uniting them to a common bottom-line. After proposals to the solution of group issues, members should arrive at a reasonable, fair and plausible agreement. This agreement automatically benefits the entire group. The combined efforts of the members are more immense than proposals of a single member of the group. Therefore, cohesion helps to resolve many

Study of Teachers Essay Example for Free

Study of Teachers Essay As educAtionAl leAders, clAssroom teAchers, students And pArents will Agree, 21st century teAching cArries with it A complicAted mix of chAllenges And opportunities. chAllenges include the issues of teAcher turnover, AccountAbility, chAnging student populAtions And student expectAtions, mounting budget pressures, And intense demAnd to build students’ 21st century skills. On the opportunity side of the equation, the growing capacity, capability, and power of technology-based tools and resources give the education community the ability to address these challenges successfully. With strategic use of 21st century learning tools, educational institutions can provide the supportive productive environment educators need to reach, teach, and support each student’s learning needs and potential. TEAcHIng In THE 21ST cEnTuRy TEAcHIng In THE 21ST cEnTuRy: THE LAndScAPE TEAcHER TuRnovER: A HEfTy PRIcE TAg $7. 3 billion. That’s the estimated annual cost of teacher turnover in U. S. schools according to a recent policy brief published by the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future (NCTAF). And in a recent cost study, NCTAF estimates that the cost of losing teachers in their first three years of employment ranges from $4,300 in rural schools to $17,800 in large urban districts. While consumer, business and professional media cover the student drop-out dilemma in our nation’s schools, another, equally alarming problem is gaining momentum. Teachers are leaving the profession at a rate that has grown by more than 50% over the past 15 years. Each year 16. 8% of our nation’s teachers leave, and in urban schools, that number spikes to 20%. 1 Source: National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future. Teachers are rapidly leaving the profession both before and at retirement age. THE AdmInISTRATIvE cHALLEngE As administrators in districts will attest, the hard costs connected to recruiting, hiring, and training new teachers are just part of the picture. Teacher quality and student achievement are â€Å"at risk† in this highturnover environment as well. Under the provisions of the federal No Child Left Behind legislation, teachers are also required to meet requirements for â€Å"highly qualified status† which encompasses content area knowledge, coursework, and instructional practice. Thanks to new data warehousing and analytical innovations, qualification is just one part of the way districts and their stakeholders are evaluating teachers. Teachers are now often evaluated based on student achievement and teaching practice, supporting the belief that highly qualified teachers also need to be highly effective. For many, this a more important measure than coursework, years of experience, and other factors. Highly effective teaching, however, is constantly changing as student demographics, social learning, and education technology continues to change the landscape. TEAcHIng In THE 21ST cEnTuRy. â€Å"we want our teachers to be highly effective. A teacher can be highly qualified but still not very effective. that’s why we had to start thinking more comprehensively about how we are going to step into a digital learning environment to strengthen our professional development and support. † John canuel Jefferson county School district colorado With all of these pressures in play, administrators find themselves in a constant state of â€Å"rebuilding the staff. † The impacts are particularly profound in urban and rural schools in greatest need of highly qualified, highly effective teachers. Why? Oftentimes, many schools have high numbers of teachers who may lack experience and qualification. Or teachers who must teach multiple subjects are required to demonstrate subject matter expertise in each. In many cases, teachers often do not receive additional professional development or support when assigned to the most challenging environments. In many instances, there is simply a shortage of teachers who meet certification requirements. TEAcHERS undER PRESSuRE While administrators grapple with the high costs of turnover, recruiting and retention, teachers are dealing with their own unique sets of challenges. Meeting more stringent licensure requirements, added professional development demands, and increasingly rigorous course content often add emotional and professional stress to teachers’ lives. The added pressures of the accountability movement requirements such as increased reporting, additional testing, differentiating instruction for diverse learners and involvement in their school communities, add time to their already full schedules. Parental expectations for thorough communications and rapid response to questions and requests add greater demands to their overflowing workdays. And while teachers generally are committed to their students, enjoy their work, and are devoted to their profession and their content areas, 21st century students come to school with very different sets of experiences and expectations than their 20th century counterparts. These tech-savvy, multi-media, multi-tasking digital natives navigate everyday life far differently than many of their digital immigrant teachers. Connecting with them, relating to them, and motivating them now requires teachers who are open to new ways of teaching and supporting students. Given these challenges, teachers who are new to the profession often find themselves frustrated, disappointed, and unsupported. They leave their schools and often the profession and the cycle continues. STudEnTS nEEd moRE Students across the achievement and socioeconomic spectrum need and deserve motivating, supportive instructional environments, engaging content, and the opportunity to learn in settings that support collaboration with peers, teachers, and the larger world community. Students today live digitally every day. They use the Internet, text messaging, social networking, and multimedia fluidly in their lives outside of school and they expect a parallel level of technology opportunity in their academic lives. There is a disconnect between the way students live and the way they learn, and student engagement ultimately suffers. Closing this gap is a challenge for our current school systems. TEAcHIng In THE 21ST cEnTuRy THE gEnERATIon gAP†¦REvISITEd Thomas G. Carroll, president of the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future reports that a third of the nation’s teachers are baby boomers who are wedded to a stand-and-deliver teaching process. Carroll stated, â€Å"We have a new group of young Generation Y teachers. They’re in their 20’s and while they often share the values of the ‘[baby] boomers’ they tend to be very idealistic and very oriented to teamwork, collaboration, constant communication, multi-tasking, and technology. These young teachers find themselves in classrooms and schools that don’t match their vision or expectations. Couple that with ‘boomer’ teachers who are being pushed into perhaps uncomfortable technology environments and you have some dissatisfaction at both ends of the spectrum. † Currently, the baby boomers and teaching veterans are retiring, representing nearly one-third of the teaching workforce. At the same time, 20% of all new teachers are leaving [the profession] as well. Carroll notes that American education will need to consider new staffing models in which â€Å"learning teams† representing crossgenerational teaching teams address students’ learning needs and opportunities. â€Å"†¦high quality teachers are the most important factor in a child’s education. † u. S. department of Education’s White Paper, meeting the need for High Quality Teachers: e-Learning Solutions, research including the 2003 report Teacher Quality: understanding the Effects of Teacher Attributes2 TEAcHER QuALITy STudEnT AcHIEvEmEnT: THE PRovEn connEcTIon Among education’s many stakeholders, one point of agreement remains constant. As reported in the U. S. Department of Education’s research including the 2003 report Teacher Quality: Understanding the Effects of Teacher Attributes shows that â€Å"high quality teachers are the most important factor in a child’s education. † In fact, this same report notes that teachers are the single most important factor in student achievement. Lower achieving students are most likely to benefit from improvements in teacher effectiveness. In addition, good teachers can make a difference of one grade-level equivalent in annual achievement gains. Teacher quality continues to rank as the most reliable predictor of student achievement. PuTTIng THE PIEcES TogETHER†¦In nEW WAyS When the teacher retention outlook combines with the proven importance of teacher quality and efficacy, it’s clear that systemic reform initiatives must encompass programs, strategies, 21st century learning tools and commitments to create supportive, productive environments for educators. Said NCTAF’s Thomas Carroll, â€Å"With NCLB, we have many of the right ‘pressure points’—most notably accountability for each student’s learning and knowing how each teacher is performing. When many district leaders examined the retention issue, they used to think what they had was simply a supply problem. Now, they’re recognizing that it’s not just about retention, it’s retention of effective teachers. † According to Carroll, there is a new role and new need for tools and strategies to help teachers become not just qualified, but effective. He states, â€Å"We need a continuous process of development for teachers in schools so that each teacher becomes as effective as possible. There’s a more systemic process in schools that school leaders can use to empower teachers to manage their teaching. † Carroll also noted that this systemic process, when supported by appropriate technology, can harness the collective wisdom of teachers, adding quality, continuity, and collaboration to the entire approach to teacher training, development, and retention. TEAcHIng In THE 21ST cEnTuRy nEW modELS And nEW oPPoRTunITIES TAkIng SHAPE In JEffERSon counTy, coLoRAdo John Canuel, Director of Technology, Division of Instruction, for Jefferson County Schools in Colorado, provides a working example of the systemic process described by NCTAF’s Thomas Carroll. Canuel described the district’s model saying, â€Å"No matter what else we put in place, it’s what a teacher does and the tools and resources we give a teacher that makes them effective. With our model, we focus on four main areas for supporting teachers. Teachers need curriculum and we define that as the key essential learning that students need to know throughout their career and that tie back to standards, benchmarks, and expectations. Next is assessment. We embrace and surround our teachers with effective assessment tools so they know not only what students need to know†¦but verify that they [students] know it. We also emphasize clear instructional practices and clear strategies for differentiation, reaching every student. Lastly, we focus on teacher leadership, so teachers truly understand the big picture about where students are going. † â€Å"The new technology infrastructure supports teachers with a constant community presence, in which content, curriculum and professional practice are integrated and immediately accessible† John canuel Jefferson county School district colorado  conTInuouS PRofESSIonAL dEvELoPmEnT goES onLInE Jefferson County, like other districts throughout the United States, sought to develop a technologyenabled approach that would provide continuous, on-going professional development. Among their goals were providing educators with more convenient â€Å"anywhere, anytime† access to learning materials and online courses, offering more personalized professional learning opportunities, and creating online communities that would support individual needs and the sharing of best practices. Canuel stated that the district used the four priorities noted above as the conceptual foundation for launching new technology-based educational tools and resources for teachers. In addition, the district’s leadership noted that teachers, young and veteran alike, were struggling with 21st century digital skills. As the district built its strategic plans, leadership challenged itself to â€Å"†¦think more comprehensively about how to step into a digital learning environment. † EducAToR communITIES of PRAcTIcE. Professional development was among the district’s first reform targets. Notes Canuel, â€Å"We have expanded the traditional professional development model. We believe that quality professional development is much more time sensitive and closer to the school. We use many site-based models for staff development and we’ve done a great deal of work around communities of practice, which, we’ve discovered, can be incredibly powerful. † These online communities provide discussion boards and give the district’s teachers the opportunity to share best practices. In Jefferson County, professional learning communities are now thriving both in and across the district’s 150 school buildings. The district introduced traditional online courses and discovered that educators genuinely valued the ability to interact with their colleagues. TEAcHIng In THE 21ST cEnTuRy From there, momentum began to build. Canuel notes that quite naturally, teachers are simultaneous members of multiple communities—within their own buildings, by grade level, by subject matter and more. Using a platform that integrates online course and content delivery and community, the district supports these multiple professional learning communities with a growing collection of custom resources and tools. â€Å"We’ve used technology-based tools to create a portal/professional learning community system, so teachers now receive customized delivery of information, around our four key priorities. † As an example, first grade teachers receive specific first grade information supporting curriculum, instructional practice, and other relevant communication. Canuel reports that this new system empowers first grade teachers to interact and share with one another, supporting informal professional development among colleagues. The district’s first grade teachers are sharing strategies and resources more fluidly and across building boundaries. The new technology infrastructure supports teachers with a constant community presence, in which content, curriculum and professional practice are integrated and immediately accessible. unExPEcTEd BEnEfITS Jefferson County’s Canuel noted that like districts everywhere, teacher workload was a difficult issue.students now see their teachers. When the new community portal/professional learning modeling effective, productive use of community system was introduced, the district technology and students perceive that expected some resistance from faculty based on the teachers are â€Å"†¦engaging in their world. † need for training and the time required to learn the new system. In both formal and informal surveys, the district has experienced unprecedented acceptance. According to Canuel, teachers are enthusiastic about the new tools, resources, and growing community. He stated, â€Å"Our teachers are more effective than they were, they are much more skilled, they have better knowledge, and we are starting to see that our teachers are more engaged. † He also noted that students now see their teachers modeling effective, productive use of technology and students perceive that teachers are â€Å"†¦engaging in their world. † Canuel also reported anecdotally that the new system is supporting teacher recruiting more effectively. He cites examples in which prospective recruits notice that the district is using â€Å"†¦the same kind of tools I’m used to using in college. † It’s tangible evidence that the district supports its teachers with quality resources and tools when new teachers come on board. In fact, all first and second year teachers in Jefferson County have their own community within the system and new teachers can see that they will have a digital support network when they begin their careers. SuPPoRTIng EducAToRS In BRoWARd counTy, fLoRIdA â€Å"we have found that the technology infrastructure we have in place has been essential in saving us time and money and keeping teachers in the classroom. † Laurie Jones m. S. Systems Analyst The School Board of Broward county, Laurie Jones, M. S. , Systems Analyst with The School Board of Broward County, Florida echoes the Jefferson County experience and points out that a critical component of that district’s commitment to provide a productive, supportive environment focuses on teacher induction. The district’s New Teacher Academy begins in an online-supported environment and then incorporates a hybrid model that includes both face-to-face professional development sessions and strong community-building support. TEAcHIng In THE 21ST cEnTuRy. SAvIng TImE And monEy WITH onLInE PRofESSIonAL dEvELoPmEnT Jones also noted, â€Å"In Broward County, we have concentrated on building a strong online course component as part of our professional development and teacher efficacy initiatives. We have found that the technology infrastructure we have in place has been essential in saving us time and money and keeping teachers in the classroom. † Jones also pointed out that the district’s professional development course completion rate has increased, as a result of providing additional courses online, since teachers can access their courses anytime or anywhere. Jones added that this new approach to professional development is increasing levels of job satisfaction and teachers are reporting a new eagerness to begin integrating online learning in their own teaching as well. Additionally, the technology supports better management of the county’s professional development program and is enabling administrators to continually measure and evaluate the impacts of its many professional development initiatives. EnABLIng EffEcTIvE PRofESSIonAL dEvELoPmEnT WITH TEcHnoLogy NCTAF’s Thomas Carroll offers important insights with regard to the role of 21st century technology tools and learning environments and their impacts on creating and sustaining teacher quality and efficacy. Carroll points out that embedded professional development can and should support induction and mentoring. In addition, technology now makes it possible to build communities focused on instruction and curriculum relevance and coherence. Additionally, 21st century tools allow teachers to communicate effectively with parents and provide teachers with the ability to give students immediate feedback about how they’re performing. According to Carroll, this directly affects teacher retention and most importantly results in improved teaching quality and student learning. ImPAcTIng TEAcHER RETEnTIon When districts support professional development programs with technology-based tools, the vision of jobembedded, on-demand teacher support becomes realistic. With effective learning management platforms, all teachers have the opportunity to expand access to professional development, reflect on their practice, and communicate with others, and the districts have tools to manage and track teachers’ engagement and progress. In the contemporary teaching and learning environment, every teacher needs to be effective. This demands the tools and resources required to improve practice continuously. Carroll makes a direct connection between effective technology tools and improved teacher retention and efficacy particularly when these tools make it easier for teachers to monitor their own and students’ performance. He states, â€Å"Turnover is often driven by a sense of efficacy. If teachers know they are doing a good job and making a difference with students, they are less likely to leave. When you can reduce turnover, you can start to improve effectiveness over time. † TEAcHER-To-TEAcHER coLLABoRATIon Technology-based collaboration and collaborative tools are also part of the emerging vision. Collaborative practice gives teachers the ability to learn from one another, benefit from self- and peer-assessment, and to plan and build instructional strategies together. Young teachers often report that they are isolated in their first-year teaching, working in a â€Å"sink or swim† environment. Learning, including learning to teach, is a social, collaborative process and according to NCTAF’s Thomas Carroll, it’s logical then to tap the power of technology to support teacher-to-teacher collaboration across a building, a district or a wider network of peers. That scaffolds teacher retention and accelerates new teachers toward proficiency and effectiveness. TEAcHIng In THE 21ST cEnTuRy SHIfTIng THE PARAdIgm†¦fRom TEAcHIng To LEARnIng. Laurie Jones from Broward County advises colleagues to follow established best practices when launching an online professional development and community initiative. She adds that research with neighboring colleges and other schools using online learning and community tools provides a valuable frame of reference as well. Jefferson County School district’s John Canuel advises school leaders to start their planning with core instructional goals, making sure to put technology â€Å"in service† to meet those goals, all the while remaining open to the new possibilities that technology can offer. NCTAF’s Thomas Carroll summarizes by saying that district and teacher leadership teams must work together to accurately assess their current teaching models and investigating new models that will address current issues and challenges, including the new â€Å"learning team† mentality in which the entire school team works to deliver better academic performance. Cohesive, comprehensive and integrated human resource, instructional, and professional development strategies are the driving force and technology tools and infrastructure are a core part of the foundation. For centuries, schools have been structured and perceived as places for teaching. The challenge in 21st century is restructuring schools as learning places†¦for both students and teachers alike. Technology’s role in the transformation is critical and valuable in creating learning environments that support teacher efficacy, productivity, and professional practice. REfEREncES Dwyer, Carol A. (2007), America’s Challenge: Effective Teachers for At-Risk Schools and Students, National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality Kleiman, Glenn M. (2005) (Education Development Center, Inc.), Meeting the Need for High Quality Teachers: e-Learning Solutions, U. S. Department of Education Secretary’s No Child Left Behind Leadership Summit; Increasing Options Through e-Learning Koch, Melissa and Fusco, Judith (2007), Designing for Growth: Enabling Communities of Practice to Develop and Extend their Work Online National Summary: 2007 State Teacher Policy Yearbook: Progress on Teacher Quality, National Council on Teacher Quality Policy Brief: The High Cost of Teacher Turnover (2007), National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future. Retrieved from www. nctaf. org. Teacher Quality: Understanding the Effects of Teacher Attributes (2003), U. S. Department of Education Worldwide Headquarters 650 Massachusetts Avenue N. W, 6th Floor Washington, DC 20036 P: 202-463-4860 F: 202. 463. 4863 www. blackboard. com.

Cold War Essay Essay Example for Free

Cold War Essay Essay To what extent was Germany the cause of East/West disagreements between 1943 and 1963? (2000) 5. Analyze the role of Germany in the origin and development of the Cold War. (2002) 6. In what ways, and with what results, was Germany the key focus of the early stages of the Cold War? (2005) 7. Compare and contrast the policies of the USA and the USSR towards Korea between 1945 and 1955. (2004) 8. Also: NATO, Soviet policies, Sovietization of Central and Eastern Europe, COMECON, Stalin, Truman

Developing Expected Forwarded Counter (EFW)

Developing Expected Forwarded Counter (EFW) Abstract Wireless mesh networks have emerged as adaptable and low cost networks. Expected forwarded Counter (EFW) is a cross layer metric introduced to deal with the problem of selfish behaviour in order to provide reliable routing. This paper proposes an enhancement to the EFW, by considering congestion incurred due to selecting only high quality paths. The performance of proposed metric is evaluated through simulation. Simulation results show that overall routing performance is increased in terms of throughput and packet delivery ratio. Introduction Wireless Mesh Network (WMN) is a promising technology for the next generation wireless technologies. The Mesh Networks are self-organized, self-configured and easily adaptable to different traffic requirements and network changes. Routing is a challenge in Wireless Mesh Network (WMN) due to unpredictable variations of the wireless environment. Initially, to select a path with highest delivery rate in wireless mesh network, metrics that capture link quality have been introduced. But, most of these metrics are designed by assuming that each wireless mesh router participates honestly in forwarding process. While this assumption may not be valid in presence of selfish routers which may get profit from not forwarding all traffic. Selfish users utilize the network resources for its own benefit but unwilling to spend for others. Such selfish behavior reduces network delivery reliability. Metrics have been introduced to detect and exclude selfish nodes in a route to destination. These metrics do not consider quality of links, hence cannot select best path from source to destination. Cross layer metrics were used to consider both link quality and selfish behaviour of node [2] in order to select a high performance path. This kind of solutions may cause only high quality to get used and other links will get unused. This will make links to be congested seriously and in turn cause performance degradation. In this paper we propose metric that combines link quality and congestion information from MAC layer and forward reliability of node from routing layer. The rest of this paper is structured as follows. Section II discusses related work. Section III illustrates proposed work. Section IV presents results obtained through simulating proposed metric in comparison with ETX and EFW. Related work: Several works presented in the recent research literature focus on reliable data transmission in wireless multi hop networks with selfish participants. In recent years, several routing metrics have been proposed to select the path with the highest delivery rate in wireless mesh networks. The essence of all these metrics lies in the selection of reliable network paths, avoiding lossy wireless links prone to transmission errors. Some of these are discussed below. ETX (Expected Transmission Counter): Routing metrics for wireless mesh networks like ETX adopt a probabilistic model to represent the transmission reliability of a wireless link. Specifically, ETX measures the expected number of transmissions, including retransmissions, needed to correctly send a unicast packet over a wireless link. In order to compute ETX, it is necessary to estimate the packet loss probability in both directions since, in wireless networks based on the IEEE 802.11 protocol, the destination must acknowledge each received data frame Let (i, j)be a wireless link established between node i and j;Pij and pji denote the packet loss probability of the wireless link(i, j) in forward and reverse directions separately. The probability of a successful transmission on the wireless link(i, j)can therefore be computed as Ps,ij= (1−pij)(1−pji). Then, the expected number of transmissions necessary to deliver the data packet, considering both its transmission and the successive acknowledgment as required by the IEEE 802.11 protocol, can be evaluated according to expression Despite the purpose of selecting the most reliable paths, ETX does not model accurately the delivery rate of a network link, since it does not consider the forwarding behavior of the nodes that have established that link. In particular, ETX and its derived metrics do not take into account that a selfish node might discard the packet after its correct reception, if it benefits from not forwarding it EFW: To address the problem caused by the dropping behaviour of selfish participants, we combine the link quality measured by the ETX routing metric with the forwarding reliability of a relaying node j by improving the probabilistic model on which ETX is based. Let pd,ij be the dropping probability of a network node j((1−pd,ij)represents its forwarding probability). Since a network node can drop selectively the traffic sent by its neighbours, the dropping probability of any node j is identified both by the sending node i and the relaying node j. The probability that a packet sent through a node j will be successfully forwarded can be computed as pfwd,ij=ps,ij(1−pd,ij).Then, the expected number of transmissions necessary to have the packet successfully forwarded (Expected Forwarding Counter, EFW) can be measured according to the following equation. The first part of equation, which coincides with the ETX metric, considers the quality of the physical and MAC layers, whereas our contribution takes into account the network layer reliability. Therefore, EFW represents a cross-layer metric that models both the physical conditions of the wireless medium and the selfishness of the node with which the link is established. In addition to detecting the misbehaving nodes, the representation of the link reliability provided by the EFW metric permits to use the network paths with the highest delivery performance, without pruning the alternative routes that contain selfish nodes. Proposed work: The disadvantages of this solution are that nodes wanting to transmit packets will attempt to use the same high quality link and cause it congested seriously. And at the same time other links will get unused. MAC layer metric: Our proposed metric is based on the retransmission mechanism in MAC. The first part of this method is the success rate of transmitting frames based on the average number of retransmissions which we call Frame Transmission Efficiency (FTE) [13]. Fig. 1: Illustration of the retransmission mechanism at the MAC Layer The number of retransmissions of RTS and Data frames for each Successful transmission in MAC layer is supposed to represent the quality of that link and congestion instance. The success rate of sending frames is therefore a good estimate of both the quality and congestion of a link. From it the best quality links may be selected. The success rate of each link (FTE) is updated when a node forwards a Data packet to its neighbour and passes it up to the routing protocol. ACK Failure Count denotes the number of Data retransmission and RTS Failure Count denotes the number of RTS retransmission. The kth packet will send from Node S to Node D. The number of retransmission is assumed as Failure (k) and denotes below: Failure (k) = ACK Failure Count (k) + RTS Failure Count (k) (j) Thus FTE (k) between Node S and Node D is formulized as equation (4). It reflects the link quality and congestion situation of links. FTE (k) = We are using this frame transmission efficiency to represent link quality and congestion. It is MAC layer information. From routing layer we consider forward probability estimation. In cross layer fashion we combine information from both MAC and Routing layer to obtain congestion aware EFW. It is computed as follows Enhanced EFW or congestion aware EFW= Simulation Simulation scenario We performed simulations with NCTUns6.0 simulator that evaluates performance of the metric in comparison with EFW using OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) routing protocol. Performance Evaluation: To evaluate the performance of proposed metric in comparison with existing metrics ETX and EFW, the following variables are analysed Throughput Packet Delivery Rate Drop Rate From fig1. We can observe that the proposed metric has more throughput than the other routing metrics in wireless mesh networks. By this we can understand that the proposed metric selects better path in presence of selfish nodes in comparison with other metrics. From fig2. It seems that congestion aware EFW has more packet delivery rate when compared with other metrics. Conclusion: In this paper we introduced an enhancement to existing cross layer metric called Expected forward counter (EFW). In this metric we replaced link quality metric obtained from ETX metric with Frame Transfer Efficiency (FTE) metric which considers not only link quality but also congestion of link. As the proposed metric in cross layer fashion combines MAC layer observations of link quality and congestion with routing layer observations of forward probability estimation, it gives better performance in comparison with ETX and EFW metrics. Simulations results show that routing performance of OSPF in terms of throughput, packet delivery rate and drop rate has been improved in proposed metric. References: S. Paris, C. Nita-Rotaru, F.Martignon, and A. Capone, †Cross-Layer Metrics for Reliable Routing in Wireless Mesh Networks â€Å", in proc. IEEE/ACM TRANSACTIONS ON NETWORKING, VOL. 21, NO. 3, JUNE 2013. N. Nandiraju, D. Nandiraju, L. Santhanam, B. He, J. Wang, and D.P. Agrawal, â€Å"Wireless mesh networks: Current challenges and future directions of web-in-the-sky,† IEEE Wireless Commun., vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 79–89, Aug. 2007. S. Paris, C. Nita-Rotaru, F.Martignon, and A. Capone, â€Å"EFW: A cross layer metric for reliable routing in wireless mesh networks with selfish participants,† in Proc. IEEE INFOCOM, Apr. 2011, pp. 576–580 D.S.J De Couto, D. Aguayo, J. Bicket, and R. Morris. A High-Throughput Path Metric for Multi-Hop Wireless Routing. Wireless Networks, 2005. D. Johnson and G. Hancke, â€Å"Comparison of two routing metrics in OLSR on grid based mesh network,† Ad Hoc Netw., vol. 7, no. 2,pp. 374–387, 2009. Da Guo, Jun Li, Mei Song, Junde Song,â€Å"A Novel Cross-Layer Routing Algorithm in Wireless Mesh Network† in the proc. of IEEE International Conference 2007,pp 1-3,vol-07. Golnaz Karbaschi, A Link-Quality and Congestion aware Cross layer Metric for Multi-Hop Wireless Routing.2nd IEEE International Conference on Mobile Ad-hoc and Sensor Systems Washington, DC USA November 2005. M.E.M.Campista, P. M. Esposito, I.M.Moraes,L.H. M. Costa,O. C.M. Duarte, D. G. Passos, C. V. N. de Albuquerque, D. C.M. Saade, and M. G. Rubinstein, â€Å"Routing metrics and protocols for wireless mesh networks,† IEEE Netw., vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 6–12, Jan.–Feb. 2008. OSPF

To steal or not to steal music :: essays research papers

To Steal Music or Not to Steal Music The music industry is a very cutthroat business. Within the past few months a great deal of controversy has arisen. This controversy is based around whether copying music and sending them to friends is illegal or not. There are many different views on this but recently record companies have taken legal action against file sharers and these people who have been convicted have been given penalties for their actions regarding music copyrighting laws. Considering how these issues have been found on sections D, E, and C this topic is relatively not so important. I believe that this issue should be more important than some of the other issues because it relates closest to the people. Most of the people in America have used file sharing or at least knows someone who has tried it. The action that should be taken should be from the opinion of the people who create the music industry, the people. The first article that has to deal with music and file sharing was published on August 19, 2003, Page E03, in the Philadelphia Inquirer, The (PA). In this article the Recording Industry Association of America states that they will not pursue small violators when it comes to the illegal sharing of songs on the Internet. Also, many different people feel the RIAA is being â€Å"excessive† says that Senator of Minnesota Norm Coleman. Excessive seems to be the opinion of many people on this topic. 20 days later on April 29th, Apple came up with a potential solution to music pirating on the Internet; the story covering this topic was published on Page C11, Philadelphia Inquirer, The (PA). â€Å"Two years after angering the recording industry with its "Rip. Mix. Burn" ad campaign, Apple Computer Inc. has won its cooperation in creating the Internet's least restrictive commercial music service yet. The iTunes Music Store announced by Apple chief executive officer Steve Jobs yesterday draws from all five major labels in offering more than 200,000 songs at 99 cents a download - and includes some big-name artists who previously shunned online distribution† (Page C11, Philadelphia Inquirer, April 29, 2003). I think the creation of Apple’s new â€Å"solution† is not really going to get a lot of customers because, say you buy 10 songs for $.99 per download the price comes out to be around the same price of an album with 10 songs on it.

The Comedy of Hamlet Essay -- Character Analysis, Polonius,Gertrude, C

How does the use of comic relief best contrast the tragedy of Hamlet? In great works of literature a comic relief is used as contrast to a serious scene to intensify the overall tragic nature of the play or to relieve tension. As illustrated in Shakespeare’s tragedy Hamlet, intense scenes are joined with character’s banter and vacuous actions as to add a comic relief. In Hamlet, Polonius acts as a comic relief by his dull and windy personality, Hamlet uses his intelligence and his negativity toward the king and queen to create humor, while on the other hand Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are a comic relief by their senseless actions and naà ¯ve natures. Polonius, Hamlet, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are all used as a comic relief to increase the ultimate tragic nature of the play. Polonius is a comic relief because of his self-absorbed, dull personality. Polonius is over-eager and tries to give unwanted advice, during the play he is tactless and often rude. For instance, Polonius is a comic relief during his conversation with Gertrude and Claudius regarding Hamlet’s madness. Polonius rambling through his conversation contrasts with Gertrude’s seriousness of wanting to find out the reason to Hamlet’s madness. As Polonius begins to deliver to the king and queen the results of his investigation, he makes this statement, â€Å"My liege, and madam, to expostulate/ What majesty should be, what duty is,/ What day is day, night is night, and time is time,/ Were nothing but to waste night, day, and time;/ Therefore, since brevity is the soul of wit,/ And tediousness the limbs and outward flourishes,/ I will be brief. Your noble son is mad. . . .†(IIii,86-92) . Polonius’ speech is windy and nonsensical he wastes ti... ...d that he's been insulted for being stupid. Hamlet uses his intelligence and morbid sense of humor to portray the show how sad the play really is. In conclusion, a comic relief is used to relieve tension and to contrast serious scenes to increase the ultimate tragic nature of the play. Polonius uses his self absorbed dull personality to create humor in his scenes. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern act as the fool by their tactless actions and dialogue, their lightheartedness makes the tragic parts of the play seem all the more tragic. And finally Hamlet uses his morbid humor to intensify scenes of sorrow while he also bitterly teases others to relieve tensions at times. The comic relief in Shakespeare’s Hamlet contrasts intense scenes as to make them more intense. work Cited Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Ed. Harold Jenkins. London: Methuen, 1982. Print.

Hierarchical Social Structure :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Hierarchical Social Structure Societies begin with a hierarchical structure in which one must begin from the top of its basic structure, through its intermediates, before hitting the bottom of the sociologically defined society. The pyramid scheme begins with a single individual, as presented by Diego Velasquez in The Waterseller of Seville. This painting portrays a cycle of life by its circular patterns and smooth curves, like that of a full moon with its glowing softness as it blends into the clear, midnight sky. At its center is a clear cup filled with water, like the water of life that quenched the dying man’s thirst in a hot desert. It is being passed around three men, who also stand in a circular fashion. They represent one body in different stages of life. The young boy, in his school uniform of a black jacket and white dress shirt, looks at the glass as would a child at a chocolate chip cookie, craving and yearning for that bit of sweet chocolate encased by a soft sugary dough. He is eager and ready to take on the next step of satisfying himself and his thirst for knowledge. The old man on his right is wearing a very bright red cloak that reflects off onto his hands and face, giving it a red g low as well. He reminds one of the story of the red balloon that befriends a young boy while floating round and about in a protective and guiding manner before it was accidentally burst. He too has his hand on the cup as if to receive it from the young boy, as if they are passing this bit of knowledge onto the next stage of life, where he is now present. His hand rests upon a large water jug with such smooth curves, like the soft ripples in a pond after a rock skids across its surface. It contains that bit of knowledge carried through the years from life, flowing as would water. Behind the young boy and man is a more mysterious figure, like a spirit from the netherworld whose face is transparent. He, too, holds a glass in his hand, but unlike the other two, he is actually drinking from it. He is the symbolic representation of a completion in the rites of the glass. In the center, lie both Grant Wood’s American Gothic and Pablo Picasso’s Acrobat’s Family with a Monkey, which represent the basic unit of family.

Education and Girls Essay

This strategy is a first step to get us back on track. It acknowledges that we all need to do substantially more to help girls get into school. It reminds us of the value of education for lifting nations out of instability and providing a more promising future to their people. And regardless of whether they live in a wealthy or poor country, nothing has as much impact on a child’s future wellbeing as their mother’s level of education. We do not need complex international negotiations to help solve the problem of education. We just need to listen to governments, local communities, children, parents and teachers who know what challenges remain. And we need to provide them with enough funding to put their ideas on education into practice. To this end, we plan to spend at least ? 1. 4 billion over the next three years. This money will provide additional support to governments and more resources to strengthen international efforts to coordinate action on girls’ education. The example set by countries like Malawi, where the Minister for Education announced free schooling and immediately increased enrolment rates, shows just what can be achieved when there is a clearly defined plan of action and enough political will to implement it. In 2005, the UK will hold the Presidencies of the G8 and the EU. We will use our leadership role to make achieving gender parity in education a priority for the international community. iii Girls’ education: towards a better future for all As Meda Wagtole’s words make clear, keeping our promise on girls’ education will not just give girls better prospects; it holds the key to giving their families, communities and countries a better future as well. Rt Hon Hilary Benn, MP iv Contents Foreword iii Summary 1 1. Introduction 2 Education matters 2. Education is a right – but it is still beyond the reach of many 3 A timely strategy 4 What prevents girls from getting a quality education? 6 Educating girls is costly for families 7 Girls may face a poor and hostile school environment 9 2. Women have a weak position in society Conflict hurts girls most Tackling girls’ education on the ground 12 12 Making girls’ education affordable 15 Making schools work for all girls 17 Charities, religious and other voluntary organisations are good for girls 18 Supporting policies that work 19 Focusing international efforts on girls’ education. 21 More resources are needed 21 Donor actions in support of country-led development 22 International organisations need to work together for girls’ education 23 Civil society’s role in building global momentum and local support 5. 11 Political leadership and empowerment of women matter 4. 11 Tackling social exclusion 3. 10 24 Towards a better future for all 27 Annexes 29 Endnotes 33 v vi Summary There are still 58 million girls worldwide who are not in school. The majority of these girls live in subSaharan Africa and South and West Asia. A girl growing up in a poor family in sub-Saharan Africa has less than a one-in-four chance of getting a secondary education. The Millennium Development Goal (MDG) to get as many girls as boys into primary and secondary school by 2005 is likely to be missed in more than 75 countries. We need to make much better progress. There is growing international commitment and consensus on what can be done to improve girls’ education. This strategy sets out the action DFID will take and the leadership we will provide, with others in the international community, to ensure equality of education between men and women, boys and girls. †¢ We will work to narrow the financing gap for education. Over the next three years, DFID plans to spend more than ? 1. 4 billion of aid on education. †¢ We will work with the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) to strengthen its capacity to co-ordinate action on girls’ education. †¢ We will use the UK’s Presidencies of the G8 and EU and our role as co-chair of the Fast-Track Initiative (FTI) to push gender equality in education up the political agenda. †¢ We will support the efforts of governments in developing countries to produce plans that prioritise girls’ education. This will include providing financial help to those wanting to remove school fees. †¢ We will work with our development partners to increase educational opportunities for girls; civil society will be a key partner in this work. †¢ We will increase our efforts to promote awareness within the UK of girls’ education in poor countries. Educating girls helps to make communities and societies healthier, wealthier and safer, and can also help to reduce child deaths, improve maternal health and tackle the spread of HIV and AIDS. It underpins the achievement of all the other MDGs. That is why the target date was set as 2005. That is also why in 2000, at the Dakar Conference, donors promised that every country with a sound education plan would get the resources it needed to implement it. Progress has been hampered by a number of factors: a lack of international political leadership, a global funding gap of an estimated $5. 6 billion a year for education, a lack of plans and capacity within national education systems to improve the access to and quality of schooling for girls, and locally many poor families who simply cannot afford to send their children to school. This paper marks a new phase in the UK’s support to girls’ education. Now is the time to act. 1 1 Chapter One Introduction Education matters In September 2000, 188 heads of state from around the world signed the Millennium Declaration and established the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). While most goals aim to achieve significant progress in development by 2015, one goal was to be achieved by 2005 – gender parity in primary and secondary education. But, more than 75 countries are likely to miss this goal. We are falling well short of our promise. Women are at the heart of most societies. Regardless of whether they are working or not, mothers are very influential people in children’s lives. Educating girls is one of the most important investments that any country can make in its own future. Education has a profound effect on girls’ and women’s ability to claim other rights and achieve status in society, such as economic independence and political representation. As the following examples demonstrate, having an education can make an enormous difference to a woman’s chances of finding well-paid work, raising a healthy family and preventing the spread of diseases such as HIV and AIDS. †¢ †¢ 2 An educated woman is 50 per cent more likely to have her children immunised against childhood diseases. 3 †¢ †¢ An infant born to an educated woman is much more likely to survive until adulthood. In Africa, children of mothers who receive five years of primary education are 40 per cent more likely to live beyond age five. 2 †¢ A South African girl at her high school graduation. ( © Giacomo Pirozzi/Panos) Women with at least a basic education are much less likely to be poor. Providing girls with one extra year of schooling beyond the average can boost their eventual  wages by 10 to 20 per cent. 1 If we had reached the gender parity goal by 2005, more than 1 million childhood deaths could have been averted. 4 For every boy newly infected with HIV in Africa, there are between three and six girls newly infected. Yet, in high-prevalence areas such as Swaziland, two-thirds of teenage girls in school are free from HIV, while two-thirds of out-of-school girls are HIV positive. In Uganda, children who have been to secondary school are four times less likely to become HIV positive. 5 Introduction. Education is a right – but it is still beyond the reach of many For all these reasons, girls’ education has long been recognised as a human right. Past international commitments include addressing gender equality within the education system, the first step to eliminating all forms of discrimination against women (see Annex 2). This right to education is denied to 58 million girls, and a further 45 million boys, even at the primary school level. 6 More than 75 countries are likely to miss the 2005 MDG target for gender parity in primary and secondary enrolments. 7 One-third of these countries are in sub-Saharan Africa. On current trends, more than 40 per cent of all countries with data are at risk of not achieving gender parity at primary, secondary or both levels of education even by 2015. Figure 1. 1: Prospects for gender parity in primary enrolments Progress towards the target Gender parity in primary enrolments At risk of not achieving by 2015 Likely to achieve by 2015 Likely to achieve by 2005 Achieved in 2000 (20) (14) (13) (78) Source: Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2003-04. Grey shading indicates lack of data. These figures hide significant variation across continents, across countries, and across communities. †¢ There are 23 million8 girls out of school in sub-Saharan Africa, distributed across more than 40 countries. A further 22 million out-of-school girls are in South and West Asia, yet the majority of these are concentrated in just two countries: India and Pakistan. †¢ In Niger, less than one-third of all school-aged girls are enrolled in primary school. By contrast, in Rwanda more than four out of every five girls are enrolled in primary school. †¢ In Mali, the proportion of girls enrolled in primary school is around six  times higher in the city of Bamako than in the more remote areas of Mali. 3 1 Girls’ education: towards a better future for all There is an alarming difference between the numbers of girls attending primary and secondary school. The vast majority of school-aged girls in sub-Saharan Africa are not enrolled in secondary school, because the relatively high costs of secondary education are acting as a major disincentive for poorer parents. In Pakistan, the gross enrolment rate for girls in secondary education is 19 per cent. 9 In Niger, Tanzania and Chad it is only five per cent. There are exceptions to the rule, but generally in countries where girls fare poorly in primary education compared with boys, they do even worse in secondary education, as illustrated by the graph in Annex 3. Nevertheless, countries are making progress, sometimes dramatically so. †¢ In Bangladesh, equal numbers of girls and boys now enter secondary school. In 1990, there were only half as many girls as boys in secondary education. †¢ Nepal has nearly nine girls for every ten boys enrolled in primary school, compared with seven girls for every ten boys in 1990. †¢ In Kenya, over 1 million extra children have enrolled in primary school since the removal of school user fees in 2003. A timely strategy This paper is a first step to identifying – and implementing – the actions that will allow us collectively to keep the promises we made. 10 It serves as a reminder for us to speed up the work we are doing in education. Examples of our work in education include: †¢ Supporting education in Nigeria where there are 7. 3 million children of primary age out of school, of whom 62 per cent are girls. 11 The federal Ministry of Education in Nigeria is implementing an education programme with support from UNICEF and DFID to achieve gender parity and universal basic education. DFID is providing a ? 26 million grant, which will directly benefit girls as well as boys in six northern states. †¢ Allocating ? 10. 8 million to the government of Kenya initiative SPRED III (Strengthening of Primary Education), which aims to reduce the burden of the cost of primary education on parents. In the first year of this programme, enrolments increased from 5. 9 million to over 7 million and are still rising. Listening to local people has been an invaluable way of identifying the main constraints that keep girls from entering school, remaining in school, and learning effectively. Our country experience is also providing us with concrete evidence of how governments are overcoming these challenges. We are using this evidence of what works as the basis for the actions we intend to take to speed up progress on girls’ education. 4 Introduction DFID’s experience in tackling girls’ education is drawn from the 25 priority countries where our work is focused. Our education effort in these countries is aimed at supporting governments to provide education for all, particularly for girls. These 25 countries contain nearly three-quarters of all girls who do not have access to basic education as shown in Figure 1. 2. Global support for development, while on the rise, remains well below what is needed to make achieving the MDGs a reality, particularly in countries that are unable to work towards poverty reduction. International bilateral support for education amounts to about $4 billion a year, with much of this money going towards secondary and university schooling. International support for basic education is less than $1 billion a year – less than $2 a year for every school-aged child in the developing world. We need to do better. And we can do better. Figure 1. 2: Distribution of girls out of school in DFID’s 25 priority countries Outside DFID’s 25 priority countries 28% DFID’s 25 priority countries 72% India Rwanda Lesotho Cambodia Malawi Zimbabwe Zambia Vietnam South Africa Nepal Mozambique Ghana DRC, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Uganda (separate data not available) Kenya Indonesia Bangladesh Pakistan Sudan United Republic of Tanzania Afghanistan China Ethiopia 5 2 Chapter Two. What prevents girls from getting a quality education? In many countries and communities in both the developed and the developing world, parents can take it for granted that their daughters receive a quality education. Yet in many other places around the world, providing every child with an education appears to be beyond reach. There are five main challenges we identify that make it difficult for girls to access education. These include: †¢ the cost of education – ensuring that communities, parents and children can afford schooling; †¢ poor school environments – ensuring that girls have access to a safe school environment; †¢ the weak position of women in society – ensuring that society and parents value the education of girls; †¢ conflict – ensuring that children who are excluded due to conflict have access to schooling; and †¢ social exclusion – ensuring girls are not disadvantaged on the basis of caste, ethnicity, religion or disability. These challenges are not exhaustive, but they are recurrent themes in many countries. They constitute additional hurdles girls need to overcome to benefit from quality education. As donors, we need to support countries in meeting these challenges. Ours is a supporting role, not a leading role. And our support works best if it is based on countries’ own national strategies to reduce poverty and make progress in education. In particular we need to support countries to have in place the essential elements of quality education for girls (see Box 2. 1). 6 What prevents girls from getting a quality education? Box 2. 1 Essential elements of quality education for girls †¢ Schools – is a school within a reasonable distance; does it have proper facilities for girls; is it a safe environment and commute; is it free of violence? If not, parents are unlikely to ever send their daughter to school. †¢ Teachers – is there a teacher; are they skilled; do they have appropriate teaching materials? Is it a female teacher? Are there policies to recruit teachers from minority communities? If not, girls may not learn as much at school and drop out. †¢ Students – is she healthy enough; does she feel safe; is she free from the burden of household chores or the need to work to supplement the family income; is there a water source close by? If not, she may never have a chance to go to school. †¢ Families – does she have healthy parents who can support a family; does her family value education for girls; can her family afford the cost of schooling? If not, economic necessity may keep her at home. †¢ Societies – will the family’s and the girl’s standing in the community rise with an education; will new opportunities open up? If not, an education may not be in the family’s interest. †¢ Governments – does the government provide adequate resources to offer sufficient school places; do salaries reach the teachers; do teachers receive quality training; is the government drawing in other agencies to maximise the provision of schooling; is there a clear strategy and budget based on the specific situation faced by girls? If not, the conditions above are unlikely to be fulfilled. †¢ Donors – are donors supporting governments to provide adequate resources; do donors contribute to analysing and addressing the challenges girls face; are donors conscious of local customs and traditions; are donors prioritising the countries’ needs rather than their own agendas or existing programmes? If not, governments may simply not be in a position to provide a reasonable chance for all girls to get a quality education. Educating girls is costly for families. The education of girls is seen as economically and socially costly to parents. Costs come in four forms: tuition fees and other direct school fees; indirect fees (such as PTA fees, teachers’ levies and fees for school construction and building); indirect costs (such as transportation and uniforms); and opportunity costs (such as lost household or paid labour). These costs have a significant impact on whether and which children are educated. 7 2 Girls’ education: towards a better future for all. Educating girls can incur extra direct costs, such as special transport or chaperones for safety and ‘decency’. The price of attending school for the 211 million economically active children may be the family losing vital income. 12 An education may actually reduce girls’ marriage prospects and raise dowry payments to unaffordable levels. Investing in sons, rather than daughters, is perceived as bringing higher financial returns for families as boys are more likely to find work and be paid a higher salary. The high cost of education is the biggest deterrent to families educating their daughters. Many of the countries DFID prioritises for support have removed tuition fees or are working towards their removal. For example, there are no tuition fees in our Asia priority countries except Pakistan, and a number of Africa priority countries have recently removed school fees. In Africa, school fee removal has led to a dramatic increase in enrolments. A girl does her homework on the blackboard painted on the wall of her house in Ghana. Her older sister, with baby on her back, checks her exercise book. ( © Sven Torfinn/Panos) But it has also increased the cost of education for governments. For example, in Uganda, it is projected that there will be a 58 per cent increase in the total number of primary school students between 2002 and 2015, requiring more than double the number of teachers. Given that teachers’ salaries are the single biggest cost in education budgets, this represents a high burden. Most governments have increased both their education budget and the share that is allocated to primary education to finance these extra costs. But the challenge remains to find enough money to sustain an education of sufficient quality – while simultaneously reducing other costs that prevent children from poor families, especially girls, from enrolling. 8 What prevents girls from getting a quality education? Box 2. 2 AIDS – making the household economics worse Girls are often the first to be taken out of school to provide care for sick family members or to take responsibility for siblings when death or illness strike. 13 A sudden increase in poverty, which accompanies AIDS in the household, undermines the ability to afford school. The fear of infection through abuse or exploitation in or on the way to school particularly affects girls and may reduce attendance. Orphans seem to be at greater risk of exploitation. In the worst cases, girls may resort to prostitution to provide for themselves and the family. In Zambia, the majority of child prostitutes are orphans, as are the majority of street children in Lusaka. 14 Programmes of support are often not targeted to these most vulnerable groups. Girls may face a poor and hostile school environment A school environment that may be acceptable to boys may be hostile to girls. The physical and sexual violence against women that is common in many societies is reflected in the school environment in a number of countries. Physical abuse and abduction are not only a major violation of girls’ basic human rights, they also present a major practical constraint in getting to school. Parents feel a duty to protect their daughters and may decide to keep them at home if they feel the school is too far away. Violence against girls and women has been identified as a key barrier to girls’ education in many DFID programmes. In South Africa, DFID supports Soul City, an educational television soap opera that raises public awareness of violence against girls and women. Within developing countries, better recruitment procedures and working conditions need to be adopted to help increase the number of women teachers, who often become important role models for the young women they teach. Teachers need training to be effective in supporting girls and to intervene when violence is threatened. When teachers themselves perpetrate violence, early response systems need to be implemented to prevent such violence continuing. Alongside training to combat all forms of discrimination in the classroom, there needs to be an effective monitoring and inspection system that engages teachers, especially where there are violations of teacher authority. Governments also need more education officials and teachers who have the knowledge, understanding and status to ensure that girls have access to quality education. 15 Expertise is required to assess the problems and solutions for the education system according to the country context and real need, rather than the trends of the development agencies. 9 2 Girls’ education: towards a better future for all Women have a weak position in society Within communities, girls have to overcome many obstacles before they can realise their right to an education. DFID’s recent partnership with UNICEF to support the federal government of Nigeria will help overcome many of the problems girls have in gaining access to school and remaining there. Before girls can attend school and benefit fully from their education, a number of major social constraints have to be addressed. Girls often have limited control over their futures. Early marriage is a reality for many, where families wish for the social and economic benefits this brings. In Bangladesh and Afghanistan, more than 50 per cent of girls are married by age 18. 16 Adolescent pregnancy almost always results in girls halting their education. Girls are also more likely to drop out of school because of their domestic responsibilities, and are often discriminated against in terms of the quality of the schools they are sent to, and the costs parents are willing to pay for their education. Despite the progress being made, gender equality is likely to take generations to achieve. The UK’s own history illustrates the relationship between women’s position in society and the demands for better education for girls. One reinforces the other, but change comes slowly. Box 2. 3 Progress on gender equality in education in the UK Until the 1960s, many British girls were directed towards the commercial and technical streams in secondary school, and did not acquire qualifications for higher paying employment. Until the mid-1980s, for instance, it was still relatively unusual for girls to do well in or continue studying subjects such as mathematics or science to university level. However, the 1990s saw a sharp rise in girls’ performances at school. This has been linked to a range of factors, including families’ prioritisation of their daughters’ education, a shift in perceptions of gender linked to the women’s movements in the 1960s and 1970s, government policies on comprehensive schools, promoting further education and reform of the exam system and gender equality strategies in local education authorities and schools. Policies such as, areas in schools just for girls, strong anti-bullying and anti-harassment policies, and the promotion of science and mathematics for girls were put in place. In addition, growth in the service sector facilitated demand for girls in the labour market. Currently there is concern about why improved academic performance for girls has not translated into equality in employment opportunities and earning power. 17 10 What prevents girls from getting a quality education? Conflict hurts girls most Girls are particularly vulnerable to abuse and unequal access to schooling in fragile states. States can be fragile for a range of reasons, including conflict, lack of resources and people, high levels of corruption, and political instability. What sets these countries apart is their failure to deliver on the core functions of government, including keeping people safe, managing the economy, and delivering basic services. Violence and disease, as well as illiteracy and economic weakness, are most intensively concentrated in these areas. Of the 104 million children not in primary school globally, an estimated 37 million of them live in fragile states. Many of these children are girls. 18 Girls’ absence from school may be due to fears of violence or due to the reliance on their role as carers in the family. In Rwanda, for example, it is estimated that up to 90 per cent of child-headed households are headed by girls. 19 For girls who have been victims of violence in conflict situations, trauma can impair their ability to learn. More than 100,000 girls directly participated in conflicts in the 1990s, yet they are often invisible in demobilisation programmes. 20 Our humanitarian support and education support programmes in Rwanda have demonstrated the importance of education in promoting peace and protecting human resources in countries emerging from conflict. Our work in these environments is a reminder of the need to link education with attempts to build democracy, provide better health systems, offer social protection to the very poorest and develop multilingual and multicultural policies. Tackling social exclusion Social exclusion is an additional barrier to girls going to school. Certain groups of girls are more likely to be excluded from school on the basis of caste, ethnicity, religion or disability. In Nepal, Dalit girls are almost twice as likely to be excluded from school as higher caste girls. In Malawi, Muslim girls are more likely to be excluded than their non-Muslim counterparts. Disabled children, and among them disabled girls in particular, constitute a significant group that is denied access to education. In a recent World Bank report it is estimated that only about 1-5 per cent of all disabled children and young people attend schools in developing countries. 21 At the World Conference on Special Education Needs in Salamanca, 92 countries and 25 international organisations committed themselves to providing educational opportunities for disabled people. The challenge is to support governments to act on this commitment, and provide quality education for excluded groups. In India we have worked with the government to address social exclusion in the government of India’s SSA (Education for All) plan. 11 3 Chapter Three Tackling girls’ education on the ground As outlined in the previous chapter, countries wanting to develop and implement a policy of promoting girls’ education face a number of challenges. But for every challenge, there are examples of promising good practice that should form the basis of the way ahead. DFID will support governments to: †¢ strengthen political leadership and empower women; †¢ make girls’ education affordable; and †¢ make schools work for all girls. We will also support NGOs, religious and other voluntary organisations. This support will enable governments to develop poverty reduction strategies and education sector plans to improve girls’ access to quality education. And we will provide increased and flexible funding to support the development and implementation of national plans. 22 DFID’s bilateral funding commitments for basic education averaged at ? 150 million a year up to 2001. Since the World Education Forum at Dakar and the Millennium Summit in 2000, the UK has significantly increased its new commitments for education programmes and we will continue to do so. As a result, we expect to spend an average of ? 350 million a year on education (a total of over ? 1 billion) over the period 2005-06 to 2007-08. This would roughly double the resources going directly to education programmes in developing countries since we first adopted the MDGs. In addition to our bilateral contributions, we expect to spend ? 370 million through multilateral agencies, bringing our total funding for education over the next three years to over ? 1. 4 billion. 23 Political leadership and empowerment of women matter We will support governments in their efforts to create political leadership for women’s empowerment. We know that national leaders who speak out against gender inequality can have a significant impact. Heads of government in Oman, Morocco, China, Sri Lanka and Uganda have advocated strongly in support of girls’ education. Women leaders have been particularly effective. Ethiopia has benefited from the long-standing involvement of the Minister of Education, who has also been chair of the Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE). Successes in Ethiopia demonstrate the importance of local leadership, as in Yemen, Mexico, India, and Egypt. However, political leadership needs to be accompanied by demand for change at the grassroots level. Without it, new initiatives may have little support, and policy makers may divert the resources earmarked for girls to other purposes. The example in Box 3. 1 shows sustained political support to girls’ education. 12 Tackling girls’ education on the ground Box 3. 1 Supporting political leadership: the case of Yemen Yemen is one of the poorest countries in the world and has high gender disparities in education. Gross enrolment rates for girls are only two-thirds as high as those for boys at primary school and only half as high at secondary school. In 2003, the Yemen government committed itself to full primary enrolment by 2015, with a special emphasis on gender equity. Girls’ education is now a central element of Yemen’s poverty reduction strategy and the Basic Education Development Strategy. Some of the factors, which made this possible include: †¢ personal commitment from prominent Yemenis, for example the first Minister for Human Rights in the 2000 government; †¢ sustained donor commitment, UNICEF’s support to the 2000 Girls’ Education Strategy being a prominent example; and †¢ the establishment of Girls’ Education Units in the Ministry of Education at central and local levels since the 1990s. This led to Yemen becoming one of the countries to receive support under the global Education for All Fast-Track Initiative. DFID has been a partner in this process, providing ? 15 million towards the government’s US$121 million Basic Education Development Project alongside the Netherlands and the World Bank. Empowering adult women – building their confidence and education levels – can have a powerful impact on enrolling more girls in schools. Evidence from countries such as Uganda, Nepal, Bangladesh and Ghana24 shows that women who participate in literacy classes are more likely to send their children to school, keep them there, and watch their progress closely. 13 3 Girls’ education: towards a better future for all Box 3. 2. Supporting women’s empowerment and demand for girls’ education in India: Mahila Samakhya in India Mahila Samakhya, a programme implemented by the government of India in several states, is concerned to transform women’s lives through education. The programme facilitates the establishment of Samoohs (women’s groups) which provide women benefits such as education, health schemes and savings and credit. A large number of Samoohs have run campaigns for girls’ education, which have increased girls’ access to education. Many Samoohs have also built Jagjagis, non-formal education centres, often.